The seventh ecumenical council took on the issue of religious art, icons, arguing whether or not Jesus can or should be represented in artwork. While many within the Protestant traditions do not separate icons from idols, in the Eastern Orthodox understanding, icons are clearly distinguished from idols. It has often been pointed out that worship (adoration) is for God and God alone. The term veneration (reverent esteem) is used for Scripture, icons, relics and great spiritual leaders of the past. Veneration is not to be confused with the worship ascribed to God. Honor is shone to all, especially parents, leaders, and others.
In the Evangelical Protestant traditions, we recognize the category of worship and the category of honor, but we do not think much on the category of veneration, unless of course we speak of the Scriptures. Even here we seldom use the term veneration. Many of the followers of the Protestant Reformation were iconoclasts, image-smashers. They, unknowingly, were following in the footsteps of men like the ancient Byzantine emperor Leo III.
Leo III
Upon ascending the throne Leo III quickly found himself in combat defending Constantinople against Muslim invasions. Leo was successful in that by the end of his reign the empire was once more secure from that threat. He was a strong but hard man and criminal offences in Constantinople were commonly punished with a severity unknown by former emperors. Leo pictured himself as the dominant force in Byzantium, not only in civil affairs, but in religious matters as well. The patriarch of Constantinople, along with all bishops under his protection, were to accept their subordination.
Opposition to the use of icons in religious services was not new as it had been an ongoing debate. In the Roman catacombs of the early centuries paintings depicting Jesus along with biblical scenes illustrating the life of Christ among other biblical characters and events were common. For both the illiterate as well as the literate, they served as reminders of Gospel accounts much like the photograph of my father upon the wall brings him to mind, my heart, and prayers. Artwork became common in the early Christian experience.
Leo opposed the use of religious icons and some historians have suggested that Leo may have been influenced by Islam, which forbids representation of humans in religious artwork. While his true reasons remain uncertain, in 726 Leo ordered the removal of all icons, including the image of Jesus Christ from above the bronze doors of the imperial palace. It should be noted that he did not order the removal of the images of the past emperor Justinian and empress Theodora that stood on either side of the doors. In the American experience there was an uproar, and still is, over the removal of prayer from public schools. Imagine the outrage as people passing by saw Christ being removed from the imperial palace. There was a riot.
There were many that rebuked the emperor, including pope Gregory II far away in Rome who sternly informed Leo that the emperor has no jurisdiction over the affairs and teachings of the Church. John of Damascus was able to produce his treatise defending the use of holy images without fear of the wrath of the emperor as he wrote within the safety of distant Muslim lands.
Upon Leo’s death, his son Constantine V came to power. Constantine was even more determined to rid the empire of religious images. In 745 he called for a council to meet in the palace of Hieria near the city of Chalcedon. The council rejected the use of icons condemning the practice as heathen. Many icons were gathered up and destroyed, others were hidden, and some were sent away from the city where they would be safe. The monastery of Saint Catherine far away in Egypt still retains a collection consisting of some of the oldest Christian artwork in existence.
Irene & Nicaea II
Emperors come and emperors go. Constantine V would be replaced by his son, Leo IV. Leo was not around for long and would be replaced by his ten-year old son, Constantine VI. Being so young, his mother, the empress Irene, took control of the empire. It is under her influence that the Council of Nicaea II would be called.
In the year 787 the council would take place in the city of Nicaea. 250 to 335 bishops were present. While many had hoped that the discussions would be short, they drug on, but the conclusion was clear. This time the icons would be restored. As with the first council of Nicaea, even though the conclusion had been reached, there would still follow years of dispute and argument. The decisions of the council were translated into Latin and sent to the west, but the translation was poorly done and confusion along with misunderstandings would follow in the west.
The Issues
Some people will read Exodus chapter 20 and quickly conclude that religious artwork is forbidden, “You shall not make for yourself an image in the form of anything in heaven above or on the earth beneath or in the waters below. You shall not bow down to them or worship them; for I, the Lord your God, am a jealous God….” That should settle it. But if you were to continue reading you might be surprised to discover that images were soon commanded to be made and displayed within the tabernacle. Even the Ark of the Covenant had sculpted images of cherubim resting on the lid (Exodus 25). The Biblical prohibition was primarily against idolatry, not religious artwork; but it also recognized that there could be no true image of the invisible God.
The golden calf (Exodus 32) was condemned as a false image of God. As the Israelites looked to the bronze serpent (Numbers 21) was it was not considered idolatry for it was not declared to be an image of God. Later it would be referred to as an example of Christ (John 3: 14, 15). That same bronze serpent was eventually destroyed by king Hezekiah as it had become an object of worship (2 Kings 18).
The concern of the Iconoclast (icon-smashers) was that icons were idols. They held that Jesus should not be depicted in a painted image because he was true God incarnate and thus should not, and could not be properly depicted, for you cannot depict what is true God.
The Iconophile (lover of icons) responded that, not only can you depict Jesus, but you should do so. You can have an image of the person because he truly was, not only visible, but he was physical. If you had a camera you could take a photo of Jesus. If you refuse to represent him in a painting then, the concern was, you aren’t really admitting that Jesus was real, that he was flesh and blood; you are refusing to admit that God actually did come in the flesh truly becoming a real human. A rejection of an icon of Jesus amounts to a rejection of the physical reality of the incarnation. This is why the council concluded, not only could Jesus be represented in an icon, but he should be.
The Christian faith recognizes the redemption of the physical, the material world. For in the incarnation the Divine united with the physical, became physical. The physical is God’s good creation. John of Damascus insisted that the physical world was a vehicle of God’s grace. Therefore, he not only honored it, he venerated it as God’s good creation, clarifying that he did not worship it, for worship, adoration, is reserved for God alone. All else is honored, even venerated, for it points us to God.
Years ago, While in Turkey, I visited the Muslim city of Iznik, the modern name for old Nicaea. The old city walls remain in disrepair, the ancient arch thorough which emperors and bishops passed also stands. Even the walls of the ancient cathedral of which it is believed that the council took place can be explored, what little is left of it that is. On one wall, near the ground, sheltered among the stones, a faded image of Jesus still remains.
Suggested Reading
John of Damascus, Three Treatises on the Divine Images, St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press Popular Patristics Series, (October 1, 2003).
Leo Donald Davis, The First Seven Ecumenical Councils (325-787): Their History and Theology, Liturgical Press; First Edition (January 1, 1988).
And Next: Authority: The Great Councils: Part Eleven
The Early Church for Today 